State institutions do not have the legitimacy or the means to provide basic public services, particularly in the areas of security and education. The northern regions have been particularly neglected. This weakness of states – highlighted by their low ranking in the Normandy Peace Index (see Figure 2) – and the porous nature of borders favour the infiltration and takeover of territories by armed groups such as Boko Haram, ISIL/Da’esh, AQIM, Mujao, Al Mourabitoun and Ansar Dine. Building on grievances against the state and community rivalries, these groups have succeeded in establishing themselves by providing young populations affected by unemployment and school dropout with income from drug and arms trafficking, social services and a sense of community.
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