In the Soviet Union, scientific achievements in fields such as space exploration and theoretical physics (seven Nobel Prizes) reflected a high level of investment — in 1990, R&D expenditure amounted to around 5% of GDP.30 Since then, this figure has slumped to 1.12% of GDP, due to the decline of Russia’s military-industrial complex (accounting for 60-80% of Soviet-era R&D expenditure, according to some estimates), and the manufacturing sector in general.
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